How to Write a Scientific Paper*
By George M. Whitesides
Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University,
Cambridge, MA 02138, USA

科學論文寫作*
原著：George M. Whitesides (美國)
譯者：張希，林志宏

What is a scientific paper? A paper is an organized description of hypotheses, data and conclusions, intended to instruct the reader. Papers are a central part of research. If your research does not generate papers, it might just as well not have been done. “Interesting and unpublished” is equivalent to “non-existent.”

什么是科技論文？科技論文是集假說、數(shù)據(jù)和結論為一體的概括性描述，以此向讀者論述。論文是研究工作的中心部分。如果你的研究沒有寫成論文，也就等同于沒有做研究。有意義但沒有發(fā)表，等同于不存在。

Realize that your objective in research is to formulate and test hypotheses, to draw conclusions from these tests, and to teach these conclusions to others. Your objective is not to “collect data.”

要意識到研究的目的是為了形成并證實假說，從一些測試中得出結論，并把結論傳授給別人。你的研究目的不是簡單的收集數(shù)據(jù)。

A paper is not just an archival device for storing a completed research program, it is also a structure for planning your research in progress. If you clearly understand the purpose and form. of a paper, it can be immensely useful to you in organizing and conducting your research. A good outline for the paper is also a good plan for the research program. You should write and rewrite these plans/outlines throughout the course of the research. At the beginning, you will have mostly plan; at the end, mostly outline. The continuous effort to understand, analyze, summarize, and reformulate hypotheses on paper will be immensely more efficient for you than a process in which you collect data and only start to organize them when their collection is“complete.”

一篇論文并不僅僅是收集已經(jīng)得到的研究結果，它也有助于形成進一步的研究工作的框架。如果明確了論文的目的，這對于計劃開展你的研究工作有很大益處。好的文章提要也是研究工作的好計劃，在研究的過程中，應該反復修改這些計劃或提要。研究工作開始時，應有完善的計劃；工作結束時，應充分的總結。最有效率的做法是及時的理解， 分析， 總結， 形成假說； 而不是等到完成時才開始收集和整理數(shù)據(jù)。

The reason for outlines. I emphasize the central place of an outline in writing papers, preparing seminars, and planning research. I especially believe that for you, and for me, it is most efficient to write papers from outlines. An outline is a written plan of the organization of a paper, including the data on which it rests. You should, in fact, think of an outline as a carefully organized and presented set of data, with attendant objectives, hypotheses and conclusions, rather than an outline of text.

為什么要寫提綱？我在這里要強調提綱在論文寫作，準備報告以及研究計劃中的重要作用。我尤其相信按照提綱進行寫作對我們大家都是最有效的方法。提綱是一篇論文的行文計劃，應該包括論文所依靠的數(shù)據(jù)。事實上，提綱不僅僅是列出各段的內容， 而是按照目的， 假說， 結論來精心組織數(shù)據(jù)。

An outline itself contains little text. If you and I can agree on the details of the outline (that is, on the data and organization), the supporting text can be assembled fairly easily. If we do not agree on the outline, any text is useless. Much of the time in writing a paper goes into the text; most of the thought goes into the organization of the data and into the analysis. It can be relatively efficient to go through several (even many) cycles of an outline before beginning to write text; writing many versions of the full text of a paper is slow.

提綱本身應該文字簡練。如果大家都同意提綱中的細節(jié)部分，那么正文組織起來就更容易。在我們就提綱達成一致以前，寫正文是沒有意義的。 寫文章時，大部份時間花在寫正文上；而大部份思考是用在整理和分析數(shù)據(jù)。在動筆前，詳細討論幾遍寫作提綱會提高寫作效率；寫很多遍正文反倒很慢。

All the writing that I do - papers, reports, proposals (and, of course, slides for seminars)- I do from outlines. I urge you to learn how to use them as well.

我寫的所有文章，包括論文，報告， 建議（當然還有討論會的膠片）都從提綱開始。我也希望你們能學會使用它。
How should you construct an outline? The classical approach is to start with a blank piece of paper, and write down, in any order, all important ideas that occur to you concerning the paper. Ask yourself the obvious questions:“Why did I do this work?” “What does it mean?”“What hypothesis did I mean to test?”“What ones did I actually test?”“What were the results?”“Did the work yield a new method or compound? What?”“What measurements did I make?”“What compounds? How were they characterized?” Sketch possible equations, figures, and schemes. It is essential to try to get the major ideas written down. If you start the research to test one hypothesis, and decide, when you see what you have, that the data really seem to test some other hypothesis better, don't worry. Write them both down, and pick the best combinations of hypotheses, objectives and data. Often the objectives of a paper when it is finished are different from those used to justify starting the work. Much of good science is opportunistic and revisionist.

你應該如何起草你的提要？最經(jīng)典的方法就是找一頁空白的紙，以任何順序，寫下與這篇文章有關的所有重要觀點。自問一些顯而易見的問題：為什么我要做這項工作？它意味著什么? 我要驗證哪些假設? 我究竟驗證了哪些假設？ 結果如何？ 這項工作產(chǎn)生了新方法或新物質嗎？都是什么？我都做了那些測試？什么化合物？ 它們是如何表征的？展示相關的方程，圖表和示意圖。試著寫出主要的觀點。如果你的研究開始是為證實一個假設，然而當你發(fā)現(xiàn)你有的數(shù)據(jù)仿佛真的可以更好地驗證其它的假設時，你也不必擔心。把它們兩者都寫出來，去選擇假設，目的和數(shù)據(jù)的最佳組合。時常，當一篇文章完成時，它的目的和開始時是不同的。許多好的科學來自機遇和反復修正。

When you have written down what you can, start with another piece of paper and try to organize the jumble of the first one. Sort all of your ideas into three major heaps (A-C).

當你已經(jīng)寫下你能寫的，再拿出一頁紙，試著草擬一份提綱。將你的觀點分成三大類（見A,B,C）

A) Introduction
Why did I do the work? What were the central motivations and hypotheses?

A）引言
為什么我要做這件工作，主要的目的和假設是什么？

B) Results and Discussion
What were the results? How were compounds made and characterized? What was measured?

B）結果和討論
結果是什么？化合物是怎樣合成與表征的？測試方法是什么？

C) Conclusions
What does it all mean? What hypotheses were proved or disproved? What did I learn? Why does it make a difference?

C）結論
所有這一切意味著什么？證實或否定了什么假設？我學到了什么？結果為什么與眾不同？

Next, take each of these sections, and organize it on yet finer scale. Concentrate on organizing the data. Construct figures, tables, and schemes to present the data as clearly and compactly as possible. This process can be slow - I may sketch a figure 5-10 times in different ways, trying to decide how it is most clear (and looks best aesthetically).
接下來， 把每一部分再仔細組織。尤其是要集中整理數(shù)據(jù)。要盡可能把數(shù)據(jù)以清晰、緊湊的圖表來展示。這個過程也許會慢些。我可能要用5~10次，而且是以不同的方式，來構思一張圖，以便決定怎樣它才最清楚（而且看上去更加美觀）。

Finally, put everything—outline of sections, tables, sketches of figures, equations - in good order.
最后，把所有這些—內容的提綱、表格、草圖、方程式，排好順序。

When you are satisfied that you have included all the data (or that you know what additional data you intend to collect), and have a plausible organization, give the outline to me. Simply indicate where missing data will go, how you think (hypothesize) they will look, and how you will interpret them if your hypothesis is correct. I will take this outline, add my opinions, suggest changes, and return it to you. It usually takes 4-5 repeated attempts (often with additional experiments) to agree on an outline. When we have agreed, the data are usually in (or close to) final form. (that is, the tables, figures, etc., in the outline will be the tables, figures,…in the paper.)
當你已經(jīng)囊括了所有的數(shù)據(jù)（或者你明確知道你還需要收集哪些額外的數(shù)據(jù)），有了一個合理的構架，你對這些都感到滿意時，將大綱交給我。簡要地標明哪些地方還缺數(shù)據(jù)，你認為（或推測）這些數(shù)據(jù)大概是什么樣。如果你的推測是正確的，你將如何去解釋它。拿到你的大綱后，我將把我的觀點，建議反饋給你。一般，我們需要四或五個來回才能達成一致（中間經(jīng)常還需要補做一些實驗）。在我們的意見一致后，所有的數(shù)據(jù)通常以最終（或接近最終的）形式確定下來（也就是說，在提綱中的表格，圖表等最終將成為文章中的表格，圖表）。

You can then start writing, with some assurance that much of your prose will be used.
然后，你就可以開始動筆寫，注意你寫的這些大多將用于正文。

The key to efficient use of your and my time is that we start exchanging outlines and proposals as early in a project as possible. Do not, under any circumstances, wait until the collection of data is “complete” before starting to write an outline. No project is ever complete, and it saves enormous effort and much time to propose a plausible paper and outline as soon as you see the basic structure of a project. Even if we decide to do significant additional work before seriously organizing a paper, the effort of writing an outline will have helped to guide the research.
合理使用我們的時間的關鍵是，我們應盡可能早地交換提綱和建議。在任何情況下，都不要等到你已經(jīng)收集“全”了數(shù)據(jù)之后才開始動筆寫提綱。研究是永無止境的。當你看到你的結果初具雛形時，就要立即開始準備構思文章和提綱，這將節(jié)省你很多的精力和時間。即便在認真組織成文前，我們已經(jīng)決定補做重要的其他實驗，試著寫一個提綱也一定對研究有指導意義。

The outline
提綱

What should an outline contain?
提綱需要包括哪些內容？

Title:
Authors:
Abstract: Do not write an abstract. That can be done when the paper is complete.
標題：
作者：
摘要：不要著急寫摘要，可以等文章寫完后再寫。

Introduction: The first paragraph or two should be written out completely. Pay particular attention to the opening sentence. Ideally, it should state concisely the objective of the work, and indicate why this objective is important.
引言：文章的第1或2段應該完全用來寫引言。要特別注意寫好開頭一句話。最好是簡潔地陳述工作的目的，并指明該工作為什么重要。

In general, the Introduction should have these elements:
The objectives of the work.
The justification for these objectives: Why is the work important?
Background: Who else has done what? How? What have we done previously?
Guidance to the reader. What should the reader watch for in the paper? What are the interesting high points? What strategy did we use?
一般而言，引言應該包含以下幾個要素：
工作目的。
對工作目的評價：該工作為什么很重要？
工作背景：誰做了什么工作？做得怎么樣？以前我們做了哪些工作？
導讀：讀者應該注意該文章的哪些方面？有意義的要點有哪些？我們用到了哪些策略？

Summary conclusion. What should the reader expect as conclusion? In advanced versions of the outline, you should also include all the sections that will go in the Experimental section (at this point, just as paragraph subheadings).
總結結論。讀者期望什么樣的結論呢？在提綱的前幾個版本中，你應該包括實驗部分中涉及到的所有內容。（在這一點上，就像是段落的副標題）。

Results and Discussion. The results and discussion are usually combined. This section should be organized according to major topics. The separate parts should have subheadings in boldface to make this organization clear, and to help the reader scan through the final text to find the parts that interest him or her. The following list includes examples of the phrases that might plausibly serve as section headings:
結果和討論。通常，結論和討論是合在一起的。這一部分應根據(jù)主題來進行組織。分段應有黑體字的副標題，目的是使文章更有條理，能幫助讀者清楚地通覽全文，并找到他們感興趣的內容。下面列舉一些適合作副標題的短語：

Synthesis of Alkane Thiols
烷基硫醇的合成

Characterization of Monolayers
單層膜的表征

Absolute Configuration of the Vicinal Diol Unit
鄰二醇單元的絕對構像

Hysteresis Correlates with Roughness of the Surface
滯后現(xiàn)象與表面粗糙度的關系

Dependence of the Rate Constant on Temperature
溫度對速率常數(shù)的影響

The Rate of Self-Exchange Decreases with the Polarity of the Solvent
自交換速率隨溶劑極化度而降低

Try to make these section headings as specific and information-rich as possible. For example, the phrase “The Rate of Self-Exchange Decreases with The Polarity of The Solvent” is obviously longer than “Measurement of Rates,” but much more useful to the reader. In general, try to cover the major common points:
盡可能使副標題具體并且內容豐富。例如，“The Rate of Self-Exchange Decreases with The Polarity of The Solvent”這個短語明顯比“Measurement of Rates”長，但是對讀者更有幫助。一般來說，盡量概括該段落的共同點。

Synthesis of starting materials
初始材料的合成

Characterization of products
產(chǎn)物的表征

Methods of characterization
表征方法

Methods of measurement
測量方法

Results (rate constants, contact angles, whatever)
結果（速率常數(shù)，接觸角，其它）

In the outline, do not write any significant amount of text, but get all the data in their proper place: any text should simply indicate what will go in that section.
Section Headings
Figures (with captions)
Schemes (with captions and footnotes)
Equations
Tables (correctly formatted)
在提綱中，不要羅列大量的正文內容，而是要給出數(shù)據(jù)應放的合適位置：任何正文應該簡明地指出那段中包括了什么數(shù)據(jù)。
副標題
圖表（附說明）
示意圖（附說明和注解）
方程
表格（正確格式化的）

Remember to think of a paper as a collection of experimental results, summarized as clearly and economically as possible in figures, tables, equations, and schemes. The text in the paper serves just to explain the data, and is secondary. The more information that can be compressed into tables, equations, etc., the shorter and more readable the paper will be.
記住把文章看作實驗結果的集合，并盡可能清晰和簡潔地總結在圖表，表格，方程和示意圖中。論文中的正文是為解釋數(shù)據(jù)服務的，因而它是次要的。可以被壓縮進表格，方程等的信息越多，文章越短，越易讀。

Conclusion. In the outline, summarize the conclusions of the paper as a list of short phrases or sentences. Do not repeat what is in the Results section, unless special emphasis is needed. The Conclusions section should be just that, and not a summary. It should add a new, higher level of analysis, and should indicate explicitly the significance of the work.
結論。在提綱里，總結論文中的結論應是由一些簡短的短語或句子組成。除非是為了特殊的強調，一般不要重復在結果部分已經(jīng)有的結論。結論部分應該是像上面說的那樣，而不僅僅只是一個總結。它應該增加新的，更高層次的分析，并且應該明確地指出這項工作的意義。

Experimental. Include, in the correct order to correspond to the order in the Results section, all of the paragraph subheadings of the Experimental section.
實驗部分。包括所有實驗部分的副標題，順序與結果部分要相對應。

In summary:
總結：

- Start writing possible outlines for papers early in a project. Do not wait until the “end”. The end may never come.
在一個項目開始時，就應該著手去寫可能的論文提綱，而不要等到論文結束的時候。研究可能永遠沒有結尾可言。

- Organize the outline and the paper around easily assimilated data - tables, equations, figures, schemes - rather than around text.
整理提綱和論文要圍繞易于接受的數(shù)據(jù)—表格，方程式，圖表，示意圖，而不是圍繞正文。

- Organize in order of importance, not in chronological order. An important detail in writing paper concerns the weight to be given to topics. Neophytes often organize a paper in terms of chronology: that is, they recount their experimental program, starting with their cherished initial failures and leading up to a climactic successful finale. This approach is completely wrong. Start with the most important results, and put the secondary results later, if at all. The reader usually does not care how you arrived at your big results, only what they are. Shorter papers are easier to read than longer ones.
不是按照時間順序, 而應按重要性來整理。論文寫作的一個重要細節(jié)是要考慮各部分的權重。新手常常按照時間順序來寫論文：他們常常從珍愛的開始時的失敗寫起，直到最后的成功來敘述實驗過程。這種方法是完全錯誤的。應該從最重要的結果寫起，然后是較重要的結果。讀者們通常不關心你是怎么得到的結果，而只關心結果是什么。短文章比長文章更易讀。

Some Points of English Style.
英文文體上的一些要點：

1) Do not use nouns as adjectives:
不要將名詞誤用為副詞：
不合適的： 正確的：

ATP formation formation of ATP
　 生成ATP

reaction product product of the reaction
　 反應產(chǎn)物

2) The word “this” must always be followed by a noun, so that its reference is explicit
在“this”后面必須接名詞，這樣“this”所指的對象就會更加清楚。
不合適的： 正確的：

this is a fast reaction this reaction is fast
　 這是一個快反應

this leads us to conclude this observation leads us to conclude
　 這個觀察結果使我們推斷出

3) Describe experimental results uniformly in the past tense.
描述實驗結果一律要用過去時態(tài)。
不合適的： 正確的：

Addition of water gives product addition of water gave product
加水后生成產(chǎn)物

4) Use the active voice whenever possible.
盡可能使用主動語態(tài)。
不合適的： 正確的：

It was observed that the solution turned red. The solution turned red Or We observed that the solution turned red.
　 溶液變成了紅色?；?， 我們觀察到溶液變成了紅色。

5) Complete all comparisons.
所有的比較都應該是完整的。
不合適的： 正確的：

The yield was higher using bromine The yield was higher using bromine than chlorine.
　 用溴比用氯時產(chǎn)出率高。

6) Type all papers double-spaced (not single-or one-and-a-half spaced), and leave 1 space after colons, commas, and after periods at the end of sentences. Leave generous margins. (generally, 1.25” on both sides & top & bottom).
打文章時，要使用兩倍行距（不用一倍或一倍半）。冒號、逗號和句末的句號后要空一格。要留出足夠的頁邊空間。（通常，在文章兩側、頁首和頁尾留出1.25英寸的空間）

Assume that we will write all papers using the style. of the American Chemical Society. You can get a good idea of this style. from three sources: